tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-59183108065766071172024-03-18T02:47:28.595-07:00Mining GeologyAtlas of Mines and Geoscience notesKareem Aminhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01536432157108573279noreply@blogger.comBlogger180125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5918310806576607117.post-85756217265669698942016-12-21T10:55:00.002-08:002017-03-26T13:01:31.644-07:00Landsat 8 Oli Processing<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="color: #0070c0; font-family: "Calibri Light";"><span style="font-size: x-large;">S</span></span><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="color: #0070c0; font-family: Amarante; text-align: justify;">ubset</span><span style="color: #333333; font-family: Amarante; text-align: justify;"> </span><span style="font-family: Amarante; text-align: justify;">of your image that only
includes the areas </span><span style="font-family: Amarante; text-align: justify;">our
</span><span style="font-family: Amarante; text-align: justify;">are interested in. This saves
disk space and processing time. Some software packages refer to this process as
</span><span style="font-family: Amarante; text-align: justify;">subsetting</span><span style="font-family: Amarante; text-align: justify;"> while others use the term
clipping. Most raster data can be subset using XY coordinates, vector files or
user created Regions of Interest (ROI). This process always creates a new
dataset that only contains your data subset.</span></span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhkOV_8pFvGfLgHxhMZQ8NXI-gaKZr3GEjOBNDARWxpvh48tKORs5WTGkF1AJHAZFpfxUFmTG7UPlozFd2Jmd_XJiWCVI24O4tuFWWVIExr3SEhgY-F9Q6W1R9ZY9wPYmEA4Xt2QTZY9YnD/s1600/MiningG.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="Image Subset" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhkOV_8pFvGfLgHxhMZQ8NXI-gaKZr3GEjOBNDARWxpvh48tKORs5WTGkF1AJHAZFpfxUFmTG7UPlozFd2Jmd_XJiWCVI24O4tuFWWVIExr3SEhgY-F9Q6W1R9ZY9wPYmEA4Xt2QTZY9YnD/s1600/MiningG.png" title="Image Subset" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-family: Forum;"><span style="color: red; font-size: x-large;">M</span></span><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: Amarante;"><span style="color: red;">inimum</span></span><span style="font-family: Amarante;"><span style="color: red;"> noise fraction (MNF)</span> </span><span style="font-family: Amarante;">transformation is used to show the
variation </span><span style="font-family: Amarante;">between </span><span style="font-family: Amarante;">bands </span><span style="font-family: Amarante;">in </span><span style="font-family: Amarante;">an image. This is a statistical method
which works out </span><span style="font-family: Amarante;">differences
</span><span style="font-family: Amarante;">in an </span><span style="font-family: Amarante;">image </span><span style="font-family: Amarante;">based on pixel </span><span style="font-family: Amarante;">DNs in </span><span style="font-family: Amarante;">various bands. MNF determines the </span><span style="font-family: Amarante;">inherent dimensionality </span><span style="font-family: Amarante;">of image data, to segregate noise
in the data, </span><span style="font-family: Amarante;">and
</span><span style="font-family: Amarante;">to reduce </span><span style="font-family: Amarante;">the </span><span style="font-family: Amarante;">computational requirements for subsequent
processing</span><span style="font-family: Amarante;">. This step is often completed as a
precursor to other types of analysis. Basically it is a way of simplifying the
data. The MNF transform is essentially two principal component transformations.
The first transformation, based on an estimated noise covariance matrix, </span><span style="font-family: Amarante;">decorrelates</span><span style="font-family: Amarante;"> and rescales the noise in the
data. </span><span style="color: red; font-family: "Poiret One"; font-weight: bold;">[2]</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: Amarante;">This first step results in
transformed data in which the noise has unit variance and no band-to-band
correlations. The second step is a standard principal components transformation
which creates several new bands containing the majority of the information. By
using only the coherent portions, the noise is separated from the data, thus
improving spectral processing results. Once applying MNF technique, on the 7
bands images TM (After being calibrated in reflectance mode), we will have like
result 7 new bands images MNF. The image pixels are presented by eigenvalues.
In examining the eigenvalues it can be seen that the first MNF bands ( 1 </span><span style="font-family: Amarante;">and 2) </span><span style="font-family: Amarante;">have the highest values while the
remaining bands have consistent low values. It is the first two bands with the
large values that contain most of the information and it is these bands that
correspond to MNF images. The remaining low value bands (3 and under for
example) are seen as noise. The images show the information compressed into
only a few bands. The redundancy of the data is eliminated and noise is also
removed. The result are more interpretable images. You could say that the data
has been simplified or the dimensionality has been reduced.</span></span><span style="font-family: "Poiret One"; font-weight: bold;"><span style="font-size: large;"> </span></span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj4L41AaPhHHWIMBlIBlgLuKvhnvBid1Ab_XzXqyXfrv5Y9jEqEBnLKogvtLXdIiG4tONoHbSiObEJEdyItAAppBUKaGOlfzv_Sd3dj0EtgFob97HwM_ZT6gD8Zlh_vq9H_uyNdOp20DVjL/s1600/MiningG.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="Eigenvalues Images" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj4L41AaPhHHWIMBlIBlgLuKvhnvBid1Ab_XzXqyXfrv5Y9jEqEBnLKogvtLXdIiG4tONoHbSiObEJEdyItAAppBUKaGOlfzv_Sd3dj0EtgFob97HwM_ZT6gD8Zlh_vq9H_uyNdOp20DVjL/s1600/MiningG.png" title="Eigenvalues Images" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-family: Andalus;"><span style="color: orange; font-size: x-large;">O</span></span><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: Amarante;"><span style="color: orange;">ptimum</span></span><span style="font-family: Amarante;"><span style="color: orange;"> Index Factor</span> (OIF) is a statistic
value that can be used to select the optimum combination of three bands in a
satellite image with which you want to create a color composite. The optimum
combination of bands out of all possible 3-band combinations is the one with
the highest amount of 'information' (= highest sum of standard deviations),
with the least amount of duplication (lowest correlation among band pairs). The
limitation of the OIF calculation is that, the best combination for conveying
the overall information in a large scene may not be the best combination for
conveying the specific information desired by the image analysis. This from
experience in most cases is reasonable and that also depends on the type of
study. The aim of this study is to use OIF technique to rank all the possible
three-band combinations with the best favorable for geological mapping of
El-Beda Prospect. </span><span style="color: red; font-family: Amarante;">[3] </span><span style="font-family: Amarante;">Based on </span><span style="font-family: Amarante;">the
results </span><span style="font-family: Amarante;">obtained from OIF, the combination </span><span style="font-family: Amarante;">7, 2 </span><span style="font-family: Amarante;">and
</span><span style="font-family: Amarante;">1 shows </span><span style="font-family: Amarante;">the
highest value of OIF with the first rank. </span><span style="font-family: Amarante;">This
band </span><span style="font-family: Amarante;">combination has the most information with
</span><span style="font-family: Amarante;">the least </span><span style="font-family: Amarante;">amount
of duplication so that the </span><span style="font-family: Amarante;">boundaries
between </span><span style="font-family: Amarante;">rock units and other geological features </span><span style="font-family: Amarante;">are very </span><span style="font-family: Amarante;">clear.</span></span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjKSSYwquYsB0stBjooPJw5m9JaWJ-7EFU7U5DUl1DqwnWitCGXdDedQ2428DX1TU7x4nz1auXUBQOc1rEYlmNTDcY9_UA_v6AimgzKnEA964zTc5LaeH9uaFbHrM886RsCteqdN5KRLP9f/s1600/MiningG.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="Optimum Index Factor (OIF)" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjKSSYwquYsB0stBjooPJw5m9JaWJ-7EFU7U5DUl1DqwnWitCGXdDedQ2428DX1TU7x4nz1auXUBQOc1rEYlmNTDcY9_UA_v6AimgzKnEA964zTc5LaeH9uaFbHrM886RsCteqdN5KRLP9f/s1600/MiningG.png" title="Optimum Index Factor (OIF)" /></a></div>
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<span style="color: red; font-family: "Poiret One"; font-weight: bold;">[2] </span><span style="font-family: "Poiret One"; font-weight: bold;">J.W. , Boardman & F.A. , Kruse </span><span style="color: #0070c0; font-family: "Poiret One"; font-weight: bold;">;
Thematic </span><span style="color: #0070c0; font-family: "Poiret One"; font-weight: bold;">Coference</span><span style="color: #0070c0; font-family: "Poiret One"; font-weight: bold;"> </span><span style="color: #0070c0; font-family: "Poiret One"; font-weight: bold;">on Geologic </span><span style="color: #0070c0; font-family: "Poiret One"; font-weight: bold;">Remote Sensing, </span><span style="color: #0070c0; font-family: "Poiret One"; font-weight: bold;">Environmetal</span><span style="color: #0070c0; font-family: "Poiret One"; font-weight: bold;"> </span><span style="color: #0070c0; font-family: "Poiret One"; font-weight: bold;">Research Institute </span><span style="color: #0070c0; font-family: "Poiret One"; font-weight: bold;">of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, I: 407-418;
(1994</span><span style="color: #0070c0; font-family: "Poiret One"; font-weight: bold;">);
"</span><span style="color: #0070c0; font-family: "Poiret One"; font-weight: bold;">Automated
spectral analysis: A geologic example </span><span style="color: #0070c0; font-family: "Poiret One"; font-weight: bold;">using AVIRIS </span><span style="color: #0070c0; font-family: "Poiret One"; font-weight: bold;">data,
</span><span style="color: #0070c0; font-family: "Poiret One"; font-weight: bold;">noth</span><span style="color: #0070c0; font-family: "Poiret One"; font-weight: bold;">
Grapevine </span><span style="color: #0070c0; font-family: "Poiret One"; font-weight: bold;">Mountais</span><span style="color: #0070c0; font-family: "Poiret One"; font-weight: bold;">, Nevada".</span></div>
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<span style="color: red; font-family: "Poiret One"; font-weight: bold;">[3] </span><span style="font-family: "Poiret One"; font-weight: bold;">Ali M. </span><span style="font-family: "Poiret One"; font-weight: bold;">Qaid</span><span style="font-family: "Poiret One"; font-weight: bold;"> and H.T. </span><span style="font-family: "Poiret One"; font-weight: bold;">Basavarajappa</span><span style="font-family: "Poiret One"; font-weight: bold;"> </span><span style="color: #0070c0; font-family: "Poiret One"; font-weight: bold;">; American-Eurasian Journal of
Scientific Research 3 (1): 84-91, 2008 ISSN 1818-6785"Application of
Optimum Index Factor Technique to Landsat-7 Data </span><span style="color: #0070c0; font-family: "Poiret One"; font-weight: bold;">for Geological </span><span style="color: #0070c0; font-family: "Poiret One"; font-weight: bold;">Mapping
of North East of </span><span style="color: #0070c0; font-family: "Poiret One"; font-weight: bold;">Hajjah</span><span style="color: #0070c0; font-family: "Poiret One"; font-weight: bold;">, Yemen".</span></div>
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Kareem Aminhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01536432157108573279noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5918310806576607117.post-10282857792279737442016-12-20T12:41:00.000-08:002016-12-20T12:41:10.907-08:00Landsat 8 Preprocessing<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiuRRv51JrjUluPM6Y-JSfJDwbt1YMFFQDiZm0gcVc4CUCULuFsIGBg6VzbbLjyAD-WtcNURK-3uW6ejJR1sCwPubY4-K_yDoEQCuJA0xPjqj2afF_bnKiCXAVsMfdgR2CMCJ1EaRLHFmAg/s1600/MiningG.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="Landsat 8 Preprocessing" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiuRRv51JrjUluPM6Y-JSfJDwbt1YMFFQDiZm0gcVc4CUCULuFsIGBg6VzbbLjyAD-WtcNURK-3uW6ejJR1sCwPubY4-K_yDoEQCuJA0xPjqj2afF_bnKiCXAVsMfdgR2CMCJ1EaRLHFmAg/s1600/MiningG.png" title="Landsat 8 Preprocessing" /></a></div>
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<span style="color: #44546a; font-family: Forum;"><span style="font-size: x-large;"><br /></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #ea9999;"><span style="font-family: Forum;"><span style="font-size: x-large;">P</span></span><span style="font-family: Amarante; font-size: large; text-align: justify;">re-processing</span></span><span style="color: #44546a; font-family: Amarante; font-size: large; text-align: justify;"> </span><span style="font-family: Amarante; font-size: large; text-align: justify;">of Landsat-8 OLI/TIRS data stage consists
of those operations that prepare data for subsequent analysis that attempts to
correct or compensate for systematic errors. The digital images are subjected
to several corrections such </span><span style="font-family: Amarante; font-size: large; text-align: justify;">as </span><span style="font-family: Amarante; font-size: large; text-align: justify;">radiometric and </span><span style="font-family: Amarante; font-size: large; text-align: justify;">atmospheric. Landsat-8 data were
converted to surface reflectance </span><span style="font-family: Amarante; font-size: large; text-align: justify;">by
top-of-atmosphere (TOA</span><span style="font-family: Amarante; font-size: large; text-align: justify;">)
method Using </span><span style="font-family: Amarante; font-size: large; text-align: justify;">Envi</span><span style="font-family: Amarante; font-size: large; text-align: justify;">, which is recommended for calibration in
mineralogical mapping, as it does not require prior Knowledge of samples
collected in the field</span><span style="font-family: Amarante; font-size: large; text-align: justify;">.
Thermal </span><span style="font-family: Amarante; font-size: large; text-align: justify;">atmospheric correction was performed on
TIR bands with a normalized pixel regression method </span><span style="color: red; font-family: Amarante; font-size: large; text-align: justify;">[1]</span><span style="color: #44546a; font-family: Amarante; font-size: large; text-align: justify;">.
</span><span style="font-family: Amarante; font-size: large; text-align: justify;">The </span><span style="font-family: Amarante; font-size: large; text-align: justify;">90-m resolution TIR
bands were re-sampled to correspond to 30-m spatial dimensions for some image
processing </span><span style="font-family: Amarante; font-size: large; text-align: justify;">applications</span><span style="font-family: Amarante; font-size: large; text-align: justify;">. Nearest neighbor re-sampling Was used
to preserve the original pixel values in the re-sampled </span><span style="font-family: Amarante; font-size: large; text-align: justify;">images.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Bodoni MT Condensed";"><span style="color: #ea9999; font-size: x-large;">R</span></span><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: Amarante;"><span style="color: #ea9999;">adiometric correction</span></span><span style="color: #002060; font-family: Amarante;"> </span><span style="font-family: Amarante;">is done to reduce or correct errors
in the digital numbers of images. The process improves the interpretability and
quality of remote sensed data. Radiometric calibration and correction are
particularly important when comparing data sets over a multiple time periods.
The energy that sensors onboard aircrafts or satellites record can differ from
the actual energy emitted or reflected from a surface on the ground. This is
due to the sun's azimuth and elevation and atmospheric conditions that can
influence the observed energy. Therefore, in order to obtain the real ground
irradiance or reflectance, radiometric errors must be corrected for. The value
recorded for a given pixel includes not only the reflected or emitted radiation
from the surface, but also the radiation scattered and emitted by the
atmosphere. In most cases were are interested in the actual surface values. To
achieve these values radiometric calibration and correction must be applied.</span></span></div>
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<span style="color: red; font-family: Forum;"><span style="font-size: x-large;">C</span></span><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="color: red; font-family: Amarante; text-align: justify;">alibrated</span><span style="color: #333333; font-family: Amarante; text-align: justify;"> </span><span style="font-family: Amarante; text-align: justify;">A </span><span style="font-family: Amarante; text-align: justify;">sensor records the intensity of
the electromagnetic radiation for each pixel as a digital number (DN). These
digital numbers can be converted to more meaningful real world units like
radiance, reflectance or brightness temperature. Sensor specific information is
needed to carry out this calibration. In the case of Landsat data, the metadata
file contains this information. Most image processing software packages have
radiometric calibration tools. In ENVI some Landsat data can be converted
directly to reflectance, with out needing to first calculate radiance</span><span style="font-family: Amarante; text-align: justify;">. The Radiometric calibration has
been done by </span><span style="font-family: Amarante; text-align: justify;">Envi</span><span style="font-family: Amarante; text-align: justify;">.</span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #00b050; font-family: "Calibri Light";"><span style="font-size: x-large;">A</span></span><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="color: #00b050; font-family: Amarante;">tmospheric</span><span style="color: #00b050; font-family: Amarante;"> correction </span><span style="font-family: Amarante;">is the process of removing the
effects of the atmosphere to produce surface reflectance values. Atmospheric
correction can significantly improve the interpretability and use of an image.
Ideally this process requires knowledge of the atmospheric conditions and
aerosol properties at the time the image was acquired</span><span style="font-family: Amarante;">. The data had been corrected by
FLAASH Module in ENVI.</span></span></div>
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Kareem Aminhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01536432157108573279noreply@blogger.com5tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5918310806576607117.post-31111647958581816822016-12-20T12:14:00.001-08:002016-12-20T12:14:19.001-08:00Applied Mining Geology<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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►OVERVIEW:-☛<br /><span class="_5mfr _47e3" style="line-height: 0; margin: 0px 1px; vertical-align: middle;"><img alt="" aria-hidden="1" class="img" height="16" src="https://www.facebook.com/images/emoji.php/v6/fc6/1/16/1f6a9.png" style="border: 0px; vertical-align: -3px;" width="16" /><span class="_7oe" style="display: inline-block; font-size: 0px; width: 0px;">🚩</span></span>☛ Presents a comprehensive summary of mining geology procedures from data collection, quality assurance to their utilization in resource/reserve models, and implementation in mine production plans, which can be used as guidelines by mining industry specialists<br /><span class="_5mfr _47e3" style="line-height: 0; margin: 0px 1px; vertical-align: middle;"><img alt="" aria-hidden="1" class="img" height="16" src="https://www.facebook.com/images/emoji.php/v6/fc6/1/16/1f6a9.png" style="border: 0px; vertical-align: -3px;" width="16" /><span class="_7oe" style="display: inline-block; font-size: 0px; width: 0px;">🚩</span></span>☛ Covers a good mix of theory and practice of interest to a wide range of specialists, students, lecturers, researchers and experienced geologists<br /><span class="_5mfr _47e3" style="line-height: 0; margin: 0px 1px; vertical-align: middle;"><img alt="" aria-hidden="1" class="img" height="16" src="https://www.facebook.com/images/emoji.php/v6/fc6/1/16/1f6a9.png" style="border: 0px; vertical-align: -3px;" width="16" /><span class="_7oe" style="display: inline-block; font-size: 0px; width: 0px;">🚩</span></span>☛ Includes numerous case studies containing rich resources of unpublished data which can be used as a reference by specialists optimizing the mining geology procedures<br /><span class="_5mfr _47e3" style="line-height: 0; margin: 0px 1px; vertical-align: middle;"><img alt="" aria-hidden="1" class="img" height="16" src="https://www.facebook.com/images/emoji.php/v6/fc6/1/16/1f6a9.png" style="border: 0px; vertical-align: -3px;" width="16" /><span class="_7oe" style="display: inline-block; font-size: 0px; width: 0px;">🚩</span></span>☛ Provides computer scripts attached as Electronic Supplementary Material to facilitate learning and utilization</div>
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►<span class="_5mfr _47e3" style="line-height: 0; margin: 0px 1px; vertical-align: middle;"><img alt="" aria-hidden="1" class="img" height="16" src="https://www.facebook.com/images/emoji.php/v6/fcc/1/16/1f4dd.png" style="border: 0px; vertical-align: -3px;" width="16" /><span class="_7oe" style="display: inline-block; font-size: 0px; width: 0px;">📝</span></span> CONTENTS:-☛<br />☛Introduction<br />☛Mining Methods<br />☛Mine Mapping<br />☛Drilling Techniques and Drill Holes Logging<br />☛Sampling of the Mine Workings<br />☛Geotechnical Logging and Mapping<br />☛Dry Bulk Density (DBD) of Rocks<br />☛Data Points Location (Surveying)<br />☛Introduction to the Theory of Sampling<br />☛Quality Control and Assurance (QAQC)<br />☛Twin Hole<br />☛Database<br />☛Data Preparation<br />☛Geological Constraints of Mineralisation<br />☛Exploratory Data Analysis<br />☛Resource Estimation Methods<br />☛Introduction to Geostatistics<br />☛Variography<br />☛Methods of the Linear Geostatistics (Kriging)<br />☛Multivariate Geostatistics<br />☛Multiple Indicator Kriging<br />☛Estimation of the Recoverable Resources<br />☛Model Review and Validation<br />☛Reconciliation with New Data<br />☛Grade Uncertainty<br />☛Quantitative Geological Models<br />☛Principles of Classification<br />☛Methodology of the Mineral Resource Classification<br />☛Conversion Resources to Reserves<br />☛Balance Between Quantity and Quality of Samples<br />☛Lode Gold Deposits<br />☛Uranium Deposits (In-Situ Leach Projects)<br />☛Iron-Oxide Deposits<br />☛Bauxite Deposits<br />☛Mineral Sands</div>
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Kareem Aminhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01536432157108573279noreply@blogger.com4tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5918310806576607117.post-54402652391204768332016-12-18T13:43:00.000-08:002016-12-18T13:43:44.379-08:00Landsat Spectral Band Information <div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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Kareem Aminhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01536432157108573279noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5918310806576607117.post-88408095093846489482015-12-09T15:29:00.001-08:002015-12-09T15:29:48.038-08:00Pearls<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">Pearls are the most valuable of all organic gemstones, and have been prized for 6000 years. Pearls chemical makeup varies by region and environmental factors, but the basic formula is CaCO3. Pearls form through irritants entering specific species of mollusks (oysters, clams, muscles, etc), while the irritant can be a grain of sand or a parasite, the process is the same for pearls. The irritant is coated in CaCO3(mother of pearl) to make it less irritating to the mollusk.</span></b></div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/11857801626062674304noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5918310806576607117.post-81518024642558798462015-12-05T00:01:00.001-08:002015-12-05T00:01:33.514-08:003D Map Generator – GEO<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">Available for PC and MAC as Plugin for</span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">Photoshop CC (from v 14.2)</span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">The 3D Map Generator – GEO“ is especially created for illustrating complex geographical 3D maps. In opposite to the current „3D Map Generator 2“ the new „3D Map Generator – GEO“ can be used to create big 3D maps in smaller map scales. With a few clicks it is possible to generate isometric 3D maps in 3 different orientations with heights and depths in the terrain. As basic shapes there can be used text layers, vector shapes, Smart Objects or one of 52 vector country shapes. For designing the map there are different new tools, textures, effects, brushes and 37 icons and elements available. The generated 3D maps can be edited and redesigned for unlimited times. No layers will be flattened. Of course it is also possible to put own textures onto the surface and to use own brushes, effects, icons or other elements.</span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://www.nitroflare.com/view/8CB394FAE25658C/angus77-12451004-3d-map-generator-geo.zip">Download </a></span></b></div>
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Kareem Aminhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01536432157108573279noreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5918310806576607117.post-25170995286248982172015-12-02T13:57:00.000-08:002015-12-02T13:57:06.052-08:00Argentina Mountains <div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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Kareem Aminhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01536432157108573279noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5918310806576607117.post-61950764469102270062015-12-01T14:37:00.001-08:002015-12-01T14:37:25.019-08:00Fluorescent Hyalite Opal Cabochon - Zacatecas, Mexico<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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Kareem Aminhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01536432157108573279noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5918310806576607117.post-48512126284690306592015-12-01T10:04:00.004-08:002015-12-01T10:04:44.781-08:00Kidwellite - Coon Creek Mine, Arkansas<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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Kareem Aminhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01536432157108573279noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5918310806576607117.post-62943091920823932742015-11-23T14:34:00.001-08:002015-11-23T14:34:04.725-08:00Aurichalcite with Calcite E Vs Blue Opal <table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjQ2re5DM5Z0HkkKjxFNjeq6_qfivo-aZYOATypB7YT0t64UhixxVLe-NDU8WpnqGARL7TgF5v_sF62GvF_ArErQMczi8K-fP5ti6R7Najhapa0_bguMb-1PCkvbvZa5oX6QQJgJIqZtOoB/s1600/AURICHALCITE+with+CACLITE+Southwest+Mine%252C+Bisbee%252C+Warren+District%252C+Mule+Mountains%252C+Cochise+County%252C+Arizona%252C+USA.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjQ2re5DM5Z0HkkKjxFNjeq6_qfivo-aZYOATypB7YT0t64UhixxVLe-NDU8WpnqGARL7TgF5v_sF62GvF_ArErQMczi8K-fP5ti6R7Najhapa0_bguMb-1PCkvbvZa5oX6QQJgJIqZtOoB/s1600/AURICHALCITE+with+CACLITE+Southwest+Mine%252C+Bisbee%252C+Warren+District%252C+Mule+Mountains%252C+Cochise+County%252C+Arizona%252C+USA.jpg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, 'ヒラギノ角ゴ Pro W3', 'Hiragino Kaku Gothic Pro', メイリオ, Meiryo, 'MS Pゴシック', arial, sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 20px; text-align: start;"><b><span style="color: orange;">AURICHALCITE with CACLITE Southwest Mine, Bisbee, Warren District, Mule Mountains, Cochise County, Arizona, USA</span></b></span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Helvetica, 'ヒラギノ角ゴ Pro W3', 'Hiragino Kaku Gothic Pro', メイリオ, Meiryo, 'MS Pゴシック', arial, sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 20px; text-align: start;"><b><span style="color: red;">Blue Opals</span></b></span></td></tr>
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<br />Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5918310806576607117.post-85644048945367126892015-11-22T20:56:00.000-08:002015-11-22T20:56:44.171-08:00Digital Elevation Model (DEM) Resolution Enhancement <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
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<span style="background: black; border: none windowtext 1.0pt; color: white; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 39.0pt; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; padding: 0in;">0</span><span style="background: red; border: none windowtext 1.0pt; color: white; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 39.0pt; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; padding: 0in;">3</span><b><span style="color: red; font-family: "cherry cream soda"; font-size: 20.0pt;">Surface Interpolation</span></b><span style="background: red; border: none windowtext 1.0pt; color: white; font-family: "arial" , sans-serif; font-size: 39.0pt; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; padding: 0in;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgYaZKMpMc2pjtuxazp2EiH8VTKdK4yXvT6S5c_LlOjV-KNdJj4xSBkN-ave0HkXpuTM7do7pmGbqGDIHO-1O-Bwy9sh2uTSBf8QgZ4p7xYZowhDFfuAIqg-Zy2YABJTRVyZWRUE1fcHki1/s1600/Digital+Elevation+Model+Enhacment+Resolution.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="392" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgYaZKMpMc2pjtuxazp2EiH8VTKdK4yXvT6S5c_LlOjV-KNdJj4xSBkN-ave0HkXpuTM7do7pmGbqGDIHO-1O-Bwy9sh2uTSBf8QgZ4p7xYZowhDFfuAIqg-Zy2YABJTRVyZWRUE1fcHki1/s640/Digital+Elevation+Model+Enhacment+Resolution.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "philosopher"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%;">This exercise will guide you through a Method to
generate a New finer<a href="http://miningeology.blogspot.com.eg/2015/07/digital-elevation-models-dem.html" target="_blank"> resolution of a DEM</a>. <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "philosopher"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%;">1. Add the dem grid to ArcMap. Check if the grid
has a 30 meter cell size and a UTM projection.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "philosopher"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%;"><br /></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "philosopher"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%;">2. Enable Spatial Analyst extension From Customize
> Extension.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "philosopher"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%;">3. Open ArcToolBox >> Data
Management Tools toolbox / Raster Processing toolset >>Resample.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif; font-size: 13.5pt; line-height: 107%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEghgresvbSy0nkgvj2caswgta1mfZ3evykgMHbO9MjKt3YvPNr85OlVIBtHite794dmctssSYJR1h9TeC3280Mh4OHcs3m7gBCKM22sJ2Wd5TWyDrWSr5P_1H1eaF6qqOXFPFqvVGLHIXam/s1600/Resample.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="DEM Resample" border="0" height="342" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEghgresvbSy0nkgvj2caswgta1mfZ3evykgMHbO9MjKt3YvPNr85OlVIBtHite794dmctssSYJR1h9TeC3280Mh4OHcs3m7gBCKM22sJ2Wd5TWyDrWSr5P_1H1eaF6qqOXFPFqvVGLHIXam/s640/Resample.png" title="DEM Resample" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">DEM Resample</td></tr>
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<b style="text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="background: white; font-family: "philosopher";"></span></b><br />
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<b><span style="font-family: "philosopher"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%;">We now try to resample the <span style="color: #ed7d31; mso-themecolor: accent2;"><a href="http://miningeology.blogspot.com.eg/2015/07/digital-elevation-models-dem.html">30
meter DEM </a></span>to finer resolutions. <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "philosopher"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%;">First we need to convert the DEM grid into elevation
points. <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "philosopher"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%;"><br /></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "philosopher"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">1. Spatial Analyst Tools toolbox /
Extraction toolset >> <span style="color: #9dc3e6; mso-style-textfill-fill-alpha: 100.0%; mso-style-textfill-fill-color: #9DC3E6; mso-style-textfill-fill-colortransforms: "lumm=60000 lumo=40000"; mso-style-textfill-fill-themecolor: accent1; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themetint: 153;">Sample</span>.</span></b></div>
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<b><span style="background: white; font-family: "philosopher"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 107%;"><br /></span></b></div>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgRD48tYwNkzKoXTavYnrePepgV9Le8qp_zwjGArGs3wOiUC4nMZE_fBSV_V-XjZ3p4w0FaLyejg40ZHbPR9CRzoE975Xrzbkg03LOczw_pp3Lf1TTvi4RAfWEqdooqwCi9J5ez8jASgTrd/s1600/Sample.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="DEM Sampling" border="0" height="340" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgRD48tYwNkzKoXTavYnrePepgV9Le8qp_zwjGArGs3wOiUC4nMZE_fBSV_V-XjZ3p4w0FaLyejg40ZHbPR9CRzoE975Xrzbkg03LOczw_pp3Lf1TTvi4RAfWEqdooqwCi9J5ez8jASgTrd/s640/Sample.png" title="DEM Sampling" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">DEM Sampling</td></tr>
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<b><span style="background: white; font-family: "philosopher"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 107%;"><br /></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "philosopher"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%;">2. Specify dem 30m as the input raster and as the
input location raster, pnt30m_table.dbf as the output, and <span style="color: #f4b183; mso-style-textfill-fill-alpha: 100.0%; mso-style-textfill-fill-color: #F4B183; mso-style-textfill-fill-colortransforms: "lumm=60000 lumo=40000"; mso-style-textfill-fill-themecolor: accent2; mso-themecolor: accent2; mso-themetint: 153;">NEAREST
as the resample technique</span>. <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "philosopher"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%;">3. From the ArcMap Layer Panel, right-click on
pnt30_table.dbf and select Display XY Data.... Make sure x is in the X field,
y in the Y field, and dem30 in the Z field. <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhyjphyJi4cbiIKgz5HKwBbVOL3G2Gf-f3CMT74Y-_p1brPUSA3vWBkLduA1KHFl2RFINnH-QNhC8LshHj1OLp30JE0fvkzI7oKg6YU0z5kgtZvRcMT0ZWEzr0M-zHM0ydi3vagDqyDov58/s1600/display+points.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="DEM Display" border="0" height="340" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhyjphyJi4cbiIKgz5HKwBbVOL3G2Gf-f3CMT74Y-_p1brPUSA3vWBkLduA1KHFl2RFINnH-QNhC8LshHj1OLp30JE0fvkzI7oKg6YU0z5kgtZvRcMT0ZWEzr0M-zHM0ydi3vagDqyDov58/s640/display+points.png" title="DEM Display" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">DEM Display points</td></tr>
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<b><span style="font-family: "philosopher"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%;">4. Export the point event data to a shapefile to make
them permanent. select Data / Export Data, and save the output as
pnt30.shp.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "philosopher"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%;">5. Use <a href="http://miningeology.blogspot.com.eg/2015/06/spatial-interpolation.html" target="_blank">the spatial interpolation</a> techniques to generate
DEMs from the point data set we just created. The first method we use is <a href="http://miningeology.blogspot.com.eg/2015/06/spatial-interpolation.html" target="_blank">Inverse Distance Weighted (IDW). </a><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #ed7d31; font-family: "philosopher"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-themecolor: accent2;">ArcToolbox/Spatial
Analyst Tools/Interpolation.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi8Hz05FATQ28UwB48JDyM6vh16Z1_REdQ592ifh9GG3sqBCSakzfJ66oT-2eOpByZELZ0IC2iwMoCUYCFUnaUmCPjqBYr93YddAjwdmQpr1NEYooiHFemKtMyPruk0ePtuqViFYmLzTu4p/s1600/Interpolation.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="DEM Interpolation " border="0" height="338" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi8Hz05FATQ28UwB48JDyM6vh16Z1_REdQ592ifh9GG3sqBCSakzfJ66oT-2eOpByZELZ0IC2iwMoCUYCFUnaUmCPjqBYr93YddAjwdmQpr1NEYooiHFemKtMyPruk0ePtuqViFYmLzTu4p/s640/Interpolation.png" title="DEM Interpolation " width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">DEM Interpolation </td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<b><span style="font-family: "philosopher"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%;">6. The DEM automatically added to ArcMap uses a
symbology that is difficult to show the subtle variations in the DEM. Change
the symbology of the DEM layer from "classified" to
"stretched". With this display option, the DEM is displayed as a
grayscale map that shows the detail of the terrain.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "philosopher"; font-size: 18.0pt; line-height: 107%;"><span style="color: red;">Converting & Displaying DEM into</span> </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "philosopher"; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/">DTM (Digital
Terrain Model)>></a></span></b></div>
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Unknownnoreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5918310806576607117.post-19916156182450355792015-11-21T23:46:00.000-08:002015-11-21T23:46:15.680-08:00Black Opal & Sparkling Druzy Agate<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj5Y4tvbF_g4KYyNXRnUc4730hAr-xkoC-OZHyn1eoVtkADavsGh8Pfkq8WGgsGHjH_feF12oOe_omTspQPDE4m2KsIcEkAsyS9C88kXQi-mH6qwBJFRGyKmQ44r7QYcxEOpMj-0NuB1oye/s1600/Opal.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj5Y4tvbF_g4KYyNXRnUc4730hAr-xkoC-OZHyn1eoVtkADavsGh8Pfkq8WGgsGHjH_feF12oOe_omTspQPDE4m2KsIcEkAsyS9C88kXQi-mH6qwBJFRGyKmQ44r7QYcxEOpMj-0NuB1oye/s1600/Opal.JPG" /></a></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiAestnfFqzmz9grUmpIfuMO2Xv5Y_W1zNRRbt8KEAlJLjRMv9mR1z4NLuR3F8Cd57xkmiv5IRLuA9oH8ZKhtp-nnWeFqwiu-C7HQivcIj0nzqn_d0BvEa16ZBm2vBXQvSpt8OpQFeYRxCa/s1600/Sparkling+Druzy+Agate.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiAestnfFqzmz9grUmpIfuMO2Xv5Y_W1zNRRbt8KEAlJLjRMv9mR1z4NLuR3F8Cd57xkmiv5IRLuA9oH8ZKhtp-nnWeFqwiu-C7HQivcIj0nzqn_d0BvEa16ZBm2vBXQvSpt8OpQFeYRxCa/s1600/Sparkling+Druzy+Agate.jpg" /></a></div>
<br />Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5918310806576607117.post-89817414290790405532015-11-18T19:47:00.001-08:002015-11-18T19:48:05.981-08:00Mexican Fire Opal<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj4zaC4ffxlIkkiIRd4Hob23F0sQpMNGTYLxSWaVuHT6p-6wV9WBFscjsRrBZrgL_v1sggkGlvjOdu55ob3PndHk9csbPnGRbUbVAC25goLQYaTWfHpT5tsIITuMtjerUeJboSQGbkilJDp/s1600/Mexican+Fire+Opal.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="510" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj4zaC4ffxlIkkiIRd4Hob23F0sQpMNGTYLxSWaVuHT6p-6wV9WBFscjsRrBZrgL_v1sggkGlvjOdu55ob3PndHk9csbPnGRbUbVAC25goLQYaTWfHpT5tsIITuMtjerUeJboSQGbkilJDp/s640/Mexican+Fire+Opal.png" width="640" /></a></div>
<br />Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5918310806576607117.post-39937111222359293912015-11-18T19:07:00.002-08:002015-11-18T19:10:39.578-08:00Rainbow Druzy Agate<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhr2yqV18JxUv1cr1lsAG3z2Ewv4SYm91iYeu7rbxFUcBfs4IFVOTBQ1E0JMzAgllQa4Ae8wPOiGU3AB6vk_OJpkgY_SP_uqnmgb4PR44ue5ObpOYmp6xsMmnpR5ZJqTnq91prZXWlb_H47/s1600/Rainbow+Druzy+Agate.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhr2yqV18JxUv1cr1lsAG3z2Ewv4SYm91iYeu7rbxFUcBfs4IFVOTBQ1E0JMzAgllQa4Ae8wPOiGU3AB6vk_OJpkgY_SP_uqnmgb4PR44ue5ObpOYmp6xsMmnpR5ZJqTnq91prZXWlb_H47/s1600/Rainbow+Druzy+Agate.jpg" /></a></div>
<br />Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5918310806576607117.post-15309770203329717852015-11-18T18:58:00.000-08:002015-11-18T18:58:02.458-08:00Opal in Ironstone, Queensland, Australia.<br />
<h2>
<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: x-large;"><b>Opal in Ironstone, Queensland, Australia.</b></span></h2>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgngCY2HVbxRreXWpU6iEQLVflD-lcBat1KBqIVMquwgjsaGbCInZ1ZnsHkqcWlvXWkb_66nZn_7kzP0Pkk6opdZnBq4FJYB3DvTwEZh1qtDP8T74oYue1VE4cMr5ufnU9g1SD4HBveC1_P/s1600/Opal+in+Ironstone%252C+Queensland%252C+Australia..jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgngCY2HVbxRreXWpU6iEQLVflD-lcBat1KBqIVMquwgjsaGbCInZ1ZnsHkqcWlvXWkb_66nZn_7kzP0Pkk6opdZnBq4FJYB3DvTwEZh1qtDP8T74oYue1VE4cMr5ufnU9g1SD4HBveC1_P/s1600/Opal+in+Ironstone%252C+Queensland%252C+Australia..jpg" /></a></div>
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Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5918310806576607117.post-65732881912092520122015-11-17T15:09:00.003-08:002015-11-17T15:16:35.901-08:00The surface geology of Africa<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj-POZJtufCz9weug8IWJruQmSz293auSpRgsT5-nLv3DZ-Ga11IlDOjZpyfeB3mOyl7_zjHQ_cxMeqEvZcOOAUoPHcu8HVlFLSs3vfdHmLjqFcNlOCJlVNsJyHDfWPTB1-KTH0s3VtxF0-/s1600/the+surface+geological+map+of+Africa.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img alt="the surface geology of Africa" border="0" height="640" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj-POZJtufCz9weug8IWJruQmSz293auSpRgsT5-nLv3DZ-Ga11IlDOjZpyfeB3mOyl7_zjHQ_cxMeqEvZcOOAUoPHcu8HVlFLSs3vfdHmLjqFcNlOCJlVNsJyHDfWPTB1-KTH0s3VtxF0-/s640/the+surface+geological+map+of+Africa.png" title="the surface geology of Africa" width="624" /></a></div>
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<b style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "philosopher"; font-size: 16.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;"></span></b><br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-size: 16pt;">The map shows the lithological properties of
the surface geology of Africa. Lithology describes the mineral composition and
structure of geological material which is based on rock formation (i.e. whether
it is igneous, sedimentary, metamorphic) and mineralogy (e.g. carbonate,
silicic, mafic). This map is a good proxy for soil parent material as it only
reflects surface conditions and not the underlying bedrock. It should be noted
that the general nature of this map means that at a local level, the conditions
may be quite different to that shown. Other than the terms alluvium (deposited
by water), aeolian (deposited by wind), organic (peat deposits) and colluvium
(transported by gravity), all of which denote recent deposition, the age of
material is not indicated. The preponderance of wind-blown sediments across
Africa is striking as are the volcanic areas.</span></b></b></div>
Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5918310806576607117.post-10445313329524857582015-11-16T14:16:00.000-08:002015-11-16T14:57:10.744-08:00The Breakup of Pangaea<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjpA1tyC6Tm-yQcvFzvZpjUV8NEOr7T7Vdu13q-MV-IzQU09hPdFXG_MCd9NbHwx87bJ0sX2JE6tHKseYLdfteeZndVDCJvcYjmDSI3dIPd4XkbvOuLVVyvAuYOwi5R63xRm8uqNErl3x9w/s1600/bp.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="640" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjpA1tyC6Tm-yQcvFzvZpjUV8NEOr7T7Vdu13q-MV-IzQU09hPdFXG_MCd9NbHwx87bJ0sX2JE6tHKseYLdfteeZndVDCJvcYjmDSI3dIPd4XkbvOuLVVyvAuYOwi5R63xRm8uqNErl3x9w/s640/bp.png" width="544" /></a></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Pangaea (sometimes spelled Pangea), the most
recent of a series of supercontinents on Earth, formed about 270 million years
ago and broke apart about 200 million years ago. At this time most of the dry
land on Earth was joined into one huge landmass that covered nearly a third of
the planet's surface. The giant ocean that surrounded the continent is known as
Panthalassa.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">The movement of Earth's tectonic plates formed
Pangaea and ultimately broke it apart.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Pangaea existed during the Permian and Triassic
geological time periods, which were times of great change. The Permian mass
extinction, which wiped out an estimated 96% species about 248 million years
ago, was a major event during this time.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5918310806576607117.post-40535618739396013552015-11-16T09:23:00.000-08:002015-11-16T09:25:01.556-08:00opalized fossils<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgL5-r_JuQm3NSz5hQlGVhPJKlRpC5A9DTKsjnmOOPCz3YpHU-G8rbbkYENCJ7T18lzYCueBtkCEdf9FjAXe9Dukq4UTZbtNLOl5ncc_jGKympVSvfVxLczB1AyDUosiPnWsPD3vgS98OT4/s1600/opalized-fossils.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgL5-r_JuQm3NSz5hQlGVhPJKlRpC5A9DTKsjnmOOPCz3YpHU-G8rbbkYENCJ7T18lzYCueBtkCEdf9FjAXe9Dukq4UTZbtNLOl5ncc_jGKympVSvfVxLczB1AyDUosiPnWsPD3vgS98OT4/s1600/opalized-fossils.png" /></a></div>
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<br />Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5918310806576607117.post-25833948660541062472015-11-14T19:47:00.001-08:002015-11-14T19:48:15.307-08:00Precious Opal with an "eye" effect<div style="text-align: justify;">
<strong><span style="background: white; border: 1pt none windowtext; font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 14pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 107%; padding: 0in;"><br /></span></strong></div>
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<span style="background: #D24D33; border: none windowtext 1.0pt; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 39.0pt; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; padding: 0in;">0<span style="color: white;">7</span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Cherry Cream Soda'; font-size: 21pt;"><b><span style="color: red;">Precious Opal with
an "eye" effect</span></b></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjs9VgWuQZ79nTkI3WXBBgb76ZyvFUIlxAe5PIjvmv2jJMx2TZD6WVzVHFkco8hU8zyS-L71VS7PAKk67mJHEXxoAy-7Klp_Fscdi0aqgIkTkChYohuhXvWUvcLWZQJu2MAPDZAxcTNv4mn/s1600/07+Precious+Opal+with+an.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="640" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjs9VgWuQZ79nTkI3WXBBgb76ZyvFUIlxAe5PIjvmv2jJMx2TZD6WVzVHFkco8hU8zyS-L71VS7PAKk67mJHEXxoAy-7Klp_Fscdi0aqgIkTkChYohuhXvWUvcLWZQJu2MAPDZAxcTNv4mn/s640/07+Precious+Opal+with+an.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Description:Recently, the Wello (Wollo) locality in
Ethiopia has produced some exceptional precious Opal specimens and gemstones.
The highly desirable "Contra Luz" play of color and large
"harlequin" patterning that can be seen in the top gems and specimens
is comparable to the best of Mexican Opals and even resembles color patterns
seen in Australian gems. Opal is one of those minerals that looks as beautiful
and impressive when it is opaque as when it is water clear. The amazing range
of this material (considering the simplistic chemistry) makes it a cool mineral,
and that's saying a lot considering the species does not even have any crystal
form !! This piece features a very attractive section of Precious Opal with a
notable "eyeball" effect that is highlighted by flashes of gold,
yellow, orange, green and blue. Despite the smaller size, this piece has great
color and form, and could end up being a great bargain for one of you lucky
bidders out there who do not have a piece of this material in your collection.
The following was taken from the article on mindat by Jon Young from last year:
"This newly discovered Opal found in the Welo Amhara Regional State
Highland plateau 2.500 </span></b><b><span style="font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-bidi-font-family: Philosopher;"></span></b><b><span style="font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 107%;"> 3.200
meters above sea level of Ethiopia is a new find that is quickly gaining the
attention of the opal community. This opal was the hit of the recent Tucson
international gem show. Welo opal requires a mountain of patience and some
special cutting techniques but the finished result is every bit as stable as
the better known Australian opals. The color is brilliant and rivals any top
grade opal in the world. Most have a brightness level of at least 4 to 5 on the
brightness scale with hot neon multi-color and multiple pattern mix. Welo opal
is not generally classified as contra luz opal although I have seen a few. The
color play is face up and in a lot of cases, as bright in artificial indoor
light as it is in direct sunlight. This opal just loves any light source. This
is hydrophane opal which when soaked in water allows the base color to clear
up...sometimes highlighting the play-of-color, sometimes making it vanish. The
best trait of the Welo hydrophane opal is that when it's dry and polished it
can be one of the brightest opals in the world. From my experience, the Welo
opal is as stable as the best of all that I have cut in the last 10 years. It
can take twice as long to cut a finished stone, but the visual rewards are well
worth the time. Different types of opals require specialty care for the beauty
you enjoy... Welo opal is no different. No chemicals or detergents...If soaked
in water, it will take one to two weeks to completely dry out and return to its
original beautiful state. Do not try and accelerate the drying by any
artificial means. Do not use ultrasonic cleaning for any opals. Gondar and
Wollo (Welo) are not regarded as desert at all </span></b><b><span style="font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-bidi-font-family: Philosopher;"></span></b><b><span style="font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 107%;"> it is on the Abyssinian highland plateau of
Amhara Proper, Amhara Regional State. The Welo opal is found in the same type
of geological formations as the Australian opal. Welo opal is the most stable
opal find in Ethiopia to date. Ethiopian Opals are region specific in character
traits just like Australian opals. The Ethiopian Government does not own any
mines. All land is owned by the government: In Amhara it is administrated by
the Regional State who does not allow mining by others than registered and
licensed farmer co-operatives. <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
Unknownnoreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5918310806576607117.post-61667597148975736532015-10-21T15:16:00.003-07:002015-10-21T15:19:33.117-07:00Egyptian Mining Tenders 2016 for several sites of different Metal and non-metal Ore deposits.(Exploration and Exploitation)<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgsjxm8fbTAumxt8J3-_HLjp63cWD-L1Oom-alKk2J380OgTvh_HZqrAB5NreR_qN-V5QDmlmnWux3g_ddS8Jup5ELGwb0nC9t6IM5ctnskV3qI4vswZQSMUhsFR4W5P8iWsHFCl1gaCKUU/s1600/Bid-English1+-+Copy.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="640" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgsjxm8fbTAumxt8J3-_HLjp63cWD-L1Oom-alKk2J380OgTvh_HZqrAB5NreR_qN-V5QDmlmnWux3g_ddS8Jup5ELGwb0nC9t6IM5ctnskV3qI4vswZQSMUhsFR4W5P8iWsHFCl1gaCKUU/s640/Bid-English1+-+Copy.jpg" width="550" /></a></div>
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<span style="color: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.701961); font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 18px; line-height: 32px;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: white; font-family: Georgia, serif; font-size: 18px; line-height: 32px;">For Small and large scale mining and investments in Egypt. (Eastern desert and Sinai).</span><br />
<span style="color: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.701960784313725); font-family: Georgia, serif;"><span style="color: white; font-size: 18px; line-height: 32px;">For more Information and Contact.</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #a00031; font-family: Georgia, serif;"><span style="font-size: 18px; line-height: 32px;">http://www.emraonline.com/media-center/news/view/205</span></span>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5918310806576607117.post-74403052980288605812015-08-16T12:43:00.001-07:002015-08-16T12:43:17.107-07:00Opal with dendrite<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;">
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Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5918310806576607117.post-55337765340633058752015-07-27T08:31:00.002-07:002015-07-27T08:31:57.382-07:00Extraction of land-surface parameters and objects from DEMs<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="color: #660000; font-size: x-large;"><b>Extraction of land-surface parameters and objects from DEMs</b></span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhn72i0hDF2O2173QaambZ1rBdlAGyJYXo9fX1mAAB3QtT3csC8dVf7TKD9Enip4_8ATMsS-IN21sB-wwn8lxtUVJuZX26fEo8HvUXfFcFmozk_lVjcAUFPT45skJAxcTJ5sWZKEphAqjkI/s1600/extraction+of+land-surface+parameters.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="640" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhn72i0hDF2O2173QaambZ1rBdlAGyJYXo9fX1mAAB3QtT3csC8dVf7TKD9Enip4_8ATMsS-IN21sB-wwn8lxtUVJuZX26fEo8HvUXfFcFmozk_lVjcAUFPT45skJAxcTJ5sWZKEphAqjkI/s640/extraction+of+land-surface+parameters.png" width="506" /></a></div>
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Edited by TOMISLAV HENGL Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics University of Amsterdam Amsterdam, The Netherlands .</div>
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HANNES I. REUTER Institute for Environment and Sustainability DG Joint Research Centre Land Management and Natural Hazards Unit – European Commission Ispra, Italy</div>
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Kareem Aminhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01536432157108573279noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5918310806576607117.post-82301642748699142702015-07-25T14:12:00.001-07:002015-07-25T14:12:38.052-07:00petrified wood ... <div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<span style="color: #990000; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: large;"><b>Petrified wood found only in a specific area of Utah...it's called -yellow cat</b></span><br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgtjttY6kgiHJ-CyCHLusXhpNpsT4tonWS7rp3tvj6S_8tXpWkKdH409Pv2VIqyVaGdORAVL8ciVjRb6Dk8zLEFG0n-Yt0BsD88FEqMtGqQgMZBDiNmg93_eC77dHEL_6pRgyKPdYWnKvfj/s1600/Petrified+wood+found+only+in+a+specific+area+of+Utah...it%2527s+called+-yellow+cat.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="458" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgtjttY6kgiHJ-CyCHLusXhpNpsT4tonWS7rp3tvj6S_8tXpWkKdH409Pv2VIqyVaGdORAVL8ciVjRb6Dk8zLEFG0n-Yt0BsD88FEqMtGqQgMZBDiNmg93_eC77dHEL_6pRgyKPdYWnKvfj/s640/Petrified+wood+found+only+in+a+specific+area+of+Utah...it%2527s+called+-yellow+cat.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
<span style="color: #990000; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: large;"><b>Petrified Wood Specimen (petrified Conifer wood slab) Arizona</b></span><br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjtNhmUnMCeeKgHlKGc9JoaJzboijvVqYJ4oq3cHR4Oj4V9hRCngb86TRGLJ69spGC0jmTYSBXlkW4aw93xXzSkn7qPSnOlfejFefSqLT1UZ5qZT6IZd3ZQxgqhCAsq8XMM2OgXKRZBalN3/s1600/Petrified+Wood+Specimen+%2528petrified+Conifer+wood+slab%2529++Arizona.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="640" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjtNhmUnMCeeKgHlKGc9JoaJzboijvVqYJ4oq3cHR4Oj4V9hRCngb86TRGLJ69spGC0jmTYSBXlkW4aw93xXzSkn7qPSnOlfejFefSqLT1UZ5qZT6IZd3ZQxgqhCAsq8XMM2OgXKRZBalN3/s640/Petrified+Wood+Specimen+%2528petrified+Conifer+wood+slab%2529++Arizona.jpg" width="540" /></a></div>
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<span style="color: #990000; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: large;"><b>petrified wood ... Zimbabwe</b></span><br />
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Kareem Aminhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01536432157108573279noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5918310806576607117.post-46887300034267706302015-07-25T13:55:00.000-07:002015-07-26T14:40:49.385-07:00Extracting some Geomorphological features from Aerial photograph Vs LIDAR DTM<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b style="line-height: 16.0799999237061px; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: x-large;">"<span style="color: red;">The effectiveness of high-resolution topography </span>(0.5 m DTM) derived by LIDAR data in the recognition of geomorphological features in the mountainous landscapes<span style="color: #9fc5e8;"> (slides courtesy of Paolo Tarolli)</span>".</span></b></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhEU8zzvBfNsIgX4ww-Q8VVdD3iFwa8fL6hG6SyZ_ZgkzyG62tqYbljqDCiagVdkIoYw-f0XvFbSnCIyN_U0cZ0Re5m3sOY6uR890kr7oXUCX3TO_SbTVEnnMA0cHBligYYlX_6KPgQ6yes/s1600/satellite+image+Morpholgical+features.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="410" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhEU8zzvBfNsIgX4ww-Q8VVdD3iFwa8fL6hG6SyZ_ZgkzyG62tqYbljqDCiagVdkIoYw-f0XvFbSnCIyN_U0cZ0Re5m3sOY6uR890kr7oXUCX3TO_SbTVEnnMA0cHBligYYlX_6KPgQ6yes/s640/satellite+image+Morpholgical+features.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
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<span style="color: #660000; font-size: large;"><b>About Author </b></span><br />
<span style="font-family: helvetica, arial, sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 16.0799999237061px;"><b><span style="color: #3b5998;"><br /></span></b></span></span>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgmpO5l28fKdaQpIZo2gWapEAbaGKfMqOvcDkMYdEr0OLo3C8_olu6ZY5f-qGdDP_eD9P9MSlS7nty3xOHc45P1oJtEa72Mt9HmZ4D-QDTEGpJc9Ic4ub91d8LSbcJ8YNCB2CPm2oZKev2-/s1600/Paolo.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="248" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgmpO5l28fKdaQpIZo2gWapEAbaGKfMqOvcDkMYdEr0OLo3C8_olu6ZY5f-qGdDP_eD9P9MSlS7nty3xOHc45P1oJtEa72Mt9HmZ4D-QDTEGpJc9Ic4ub91d8LSbcJ8YNCB2CPm2oZKev2-/s320/Paolo.png" width="320" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large; line-height: 16.0799999237061px;"><b>These are slides of a well known presentation he gave in several conferences, seminars, and lectures since 2006. </b></span></div>
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Kareem Aminhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01536432157108573279noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5918310806576607117.post-65929799698073257242015-07-24T15:04:00.001-07:002015-07-24T15:06:12.457-07:00Determine your imagery to use!!!<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi0hLf8a-xa0A6Xh0qNb9Y2OyR0hHG52RPXrTGy3JAM33PTKLfB1TwKoNt7geZoNyDrOV6eAbUkqOqs6UAxP2RvRXwRy0les5Nkk9P4Y4_EMhudM5Cx-FSA8fiU7aBRruFJmFBJDGs16Dp4/s1600/Remote+Sensing+for+Geoscientists.jpg.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="568" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi0hLf8a-xa0A6Xh0qNb9Y2OyR0hHG52RPXrTGy3JAM33PTKLfB1TwKoNt7geZoNyDrOV6eAbUkqOqs6UAxP2RvRXwRy0les5Nkk9P4Y4_EMhudM5Cx-FSA8fiU7aBRruFJmFBJDGs16Dp4/s640/Remote+Sensing+for+Geoscientists.jpg.png" width="640" /></a></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 107%;">After
you clearly </span></b><b><span style="color: #5b9bd5; font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-themecolor: accent1;">understood the
problem that needs to be solved</span></b><b><span style="font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 107%;">,
you need to </span></b><b><span style="color: #ffc000; font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%;">determine or choose </span></b><b><span style="font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 107%;">the right </span></b><b><span style="color: #ffc000; font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%;">imagery</span></b><b><span style="font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 107%;"> to be obtained for extracting the information we need. There
a large number of data types are available to suit various needs.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: red; font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%;">As Examples<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 107%;">1. If
we are </span></b><b><span style="color: #5b9bd5; font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-themecolor: accent1;">studying thrust belts</span></b><b><span style="font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 107%;">, we may wish to order </span></b><b><span style="color: #92d050; font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%;">1:1,000,000
B/W single-band Landsat multispectral scanner (MSS) images </span></b><b><span style="font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 107%;">with </span></b><b><span style="color: red; font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%;">80 m resolution </span></b><b><span style="font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 107%;">and </span></b><b><span style="color: #00b050; font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%;">large area coverage
(185 × 185 km) </span></b><b><span style="font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 107%;">to make a mosaic of
part of a continent.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 107%;">2. If
we are </span></b><b><span style="color: #5b9bd5; font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-themecolor: accent1;">doing a basin analysis</span></b><b><span style="font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 107%;">, then </span></b><b><span style="color: #92d050; font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%;">a color MSS image at
1:250,000 or 1:500,000 </span></b><b><span style="font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 107%;">should be
acceptable.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 107%;">3. If
we are </span></b><b><span style="color: #5b9bd5; font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-themecolor: accent1;">mapping details </span></b><b><span style="font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 107%;">of </span></b><b><span style="color: #ffc000; font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%;">lithologic and facies
changes, or vegetation patterns and wildlife habitats</span></b><b><span style="font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 107%;">, we can </span></b><b><span style="color: #00b0f0; font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%;">use color SPOT
multispectral (XS) imagery</span></b><b><span style="font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 107%;">
with </span></b><b><span style="color: red; font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%;">20 m resolution </span></b><b><span style="font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 107%;">and </span></b><b><span style="color: #00b050; font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%;">60 × 60 km (vertical view) coverage at a
scale of 1:100,000 or 1:50,000</span></b><b><span style="font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 107%;">, or
</span></b><b><span style="color: #c55a11; font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-style-textfill-fill-alpha: 100.0%; mso-style-textfill-fill-color: #C55A11; mso-style-textfill-fill-colortransforms: lumm=75000; mso-style-textfill-fill-themecolor: accent2; mso-themecolor: accent2; mso-themeshade: 191;">Color Landsat
Thematic Mapper (TM) imagery</span></b><b><span style="font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 107%;">,
with </span></b><b><span style="color: red; font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%;">30 m resolution</span></b><b><span style="font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 107%;">, and </span></b><b><span style="color: #00b050; font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%;">covering 185 × 185 km at a scale of
1:100,00</span></b><b><span style="font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 107%;">0 would also work.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 107%;">4. For
</span></b><b><span style="color: #5b9bd5; font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%; mso-themecolor: accent1;">mapping alteration associated with
mineral deposits</span></b><b><span style="font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%;">, the ideal choice is <span style="color: #00b0f0;">high
resolution (1–10 m) airborne hyperspectral imagery.</span> If that is not
available or is too expensive and the area is large and remote, we may wish to
use <span style="color: #00b0f0;">Landsat TM</span> for a reconnaissance look.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%;">5. If we want to <span style="color: #5b9bd5; mso-themecolor: accent1;">know where a well was drilled
several years ago </span>in a <span style="color: #5b9bd5; mso-themecolor: accent1;">poorly
mapped part of the world</span>, we <span style="color: #ffc000;">chose a SPOTP</span>
<span style="color: red;">high resolution (10 m)</span> <span style="color: #92d050;">panchromatic
image </span>or <span style="color: red;">5 m resolution</span>.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%;">6. <span style="color: #5b9bd5; mso-themecolor: accent1;">For very fine detail</span>, <span style="color: #00b050;">GeoEye
or WorldView images </span>have approximately <span style="color: red;">></span>
<span style="color: red;">1 m resolution</span>. These can be enlarged to > <span style="color: #70ad47; mso-themecolor: accent6;">1:25,000 </span>and still appear
clear and sharp.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="color: #c00000; font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 18.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The following factors
should be taken into account when ordering data (Dekker, 1993).<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="color: #0070c0; font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 18.0pt; line-height: 107%;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="color: #0070c0; font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 18.0pt; line-height: 107%;">1. Cost</span></b><b><span style="color: #0070c0; font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%;">One factor to keep in mind is that <span style="color: red;">the smaller the area covered, the higher the cost per unit
area.</span> <span style="color: #00b050;">Airphotos or airborne imagery </span>will
almost <span style="color: #5b9bd5; mso-themecolor: accent1;">always cost more per
unit area than satellite images</span>.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="color: #0070c0; font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 18.0pt; line-height: 107%;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="color: #0070c0; font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 18.0pt; line-height: 107%;">2. Timing</span></b><b><span style="color: #0070c0; font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%;">If the imagery is needed <span style="color: #92d050;">immediately</span>, one can screen grab free but rather <span style="color: #5b9bd5; mso-themecolor: accent1;">low-quality imagery from internet
sources </span>such as <span style="color: #00b050;">Google Earth </span>or <span style="color: #5b9bd5; mso-themecolor: accent1;">purchase off-the-shelf data from a
government agency </span>or vendor. Large image archives exist, and data can
often be<span style="color: #ffc000;"> obtained quickly</span>. <span style="color: #5b9bd5; mso-themecolor: accent1;">Purchasing custom images </span>from
vendors and consultants, <span style="color: #5b9bd5; mso-themecolor: accent1;">or
processing digital data </span>in your own shop can <span style="color: #00b050;">take
up to several weeks</span>.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="color: #0070c0; font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 18.0pt; line-height: 107%;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="color: #0070c0; font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 18.0pt; line-height: 107%;">3. Coverage</span></b><b><span style="color: #0070c0; font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%;">A- <span style="color: #c00000;">Large
area coverage </span>can be obtained using <span style="color: #00b050;">weather
satellites </span>such <span style="color: #00b050;">as GOES </span>(covers a
full hemisphere), <span style="color: #9dc3e6; mso-style-textfill-fill-alpha: 100.0%; mso-style-textfill-fill-color: #9DC3E6; mso-style-textfill-fill-colortransforms: "lumm=60000 lumo=40000"; mso-style-textfill-fill-themecolor: accent1; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themetint: 153;">the Advanced Very High Resolution</span> <span style="color: #00b050;">Radiometer</span>, which covers a 2700 km swath on the
Earth’s surface, or <span style="color: #00b050;">the SeaWIFS instrument</span>,
with a 1502–2801 km swath width.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%;">B- <span style="color: #c00000;">Moderate
size areas </span>can be covered using some handheld <span style="color: #00b050;">Shuttle
(and other mission) photos </span>(variable area coverage), as well as <span style="color: #00b050;">Landsat images (MSS and TM)</span>, which cover 185 × 185
km. Systems that cover 50 × 50 to 500 × 500 km include <span style="color: #00b050;">MK-4
photos </span>(120–270 km), <span style="color: #00b050;">KATE-200 photos </span>(180
× 180 km), <span style="color: #00b050;">KFA-1000 photos </span>(68–85 km), and <span style="color: #00b050;">the SPOT systems (XS and P) </span>that cover 60 × 60 km.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="color: red; font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Satellite images generally
cover larger areas than airborne photos </span></b><b><span style="font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%;">or images, and the synoptic
view is one of their greatest advantages.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%;">C- <span style="color: #c00000;">For
field or local studies</span>, <span style="color: #00b050;">airborne surveys or
small area satellite images </span>will save cost and/or <span style="color: #ffc000; mso-themecolor: accent4;">provide more detail</span>. Recent
satellites, such as <span style="color: #00b0f0;">Worldview 2, 3 and GeoEye-1, </span>have
<span style="color: red;">very high resolution (up to 31 cm</span> for <span style="color: #9dc3e6; mso-style-textfill-fill-alpha: 100.0%; mso-style-textfill-fill-color: #9DC3E6; mso-style-textfill-fill-colortransforms: "lumm=60000 lumo=40000"; mso-style-textfill-fill-themecolor: accent1; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themetint: 153;">the
panchromatic sensor </span>and 1.65 m for the multispectral instrument) and
cover correspondingly smaller areas (16.4 and 15.2 km swaths, respectively).<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="color: #0070c0; font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 18.0pt; line-height: 107%;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="color: #0070c0; font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 18.0pt; line-height: 107%;">4. Resolution<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%;">The scale of the final image will to
some extent be a function of the sensor system resolution, in that one cannot
enlarge, say, an image with 80 m resolution to a scale of 1:100,000 without the
image becoming “pixelated,” that is, breaking up into the individual resolution
elements that appear as an array of colored squares.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="color: #0070c0; font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 18.0pt; line-height: 107%;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="color: #0070c0; font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 18.0pt; line-height: 107%;">5. Nighttime Surveys<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="color: #00b050; font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Thermal and radar
surveys </span></b><b><span style="font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%;">can be flown effectively at night because neither
system relies on reflected sunlight: the radar instrument i<span style="color: #ffc000; mso-themecolor: accent4;">lluminates the surface by
providing its own energy source</span>, and thermal energy is radiated from the
surface.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="color: red; font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Predawn thermal imagery </span></b><b><span style="font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%;">reveals,
among other things, <span style="color: #ed7d31; mso-themecolor: accent2;">lithologic
contrasts </span>related to<span style="color: #9dc3e6; mso-style-textfill-fill-alpha: 100.0%; mso-style-textfill-fill-color: #9DC3E6; mso-style-textfill-fill-colortransforms: "lumm=60000 lumo=40000"; mso-style-textfill-fill-themecolor: accent1; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themetint: 153;"> differing rock and soil densities </span>or color
tones (light versus dark). <span style="color: red;">Nighttime thermal imagery </span>can
reveal <span style="color: #ffc000;">shallow groundwater and moist soil</span>
(generally warmer than background), <span style="color: #ffc000;">can detect oil
spills on water</span>, and can <span style="color: #ffc000;">help map
underground coal mine fires</span>. Because radar illuminates the ground with
microwaves, it can be <span style="color: #ffc000;">flown at night to map oil
spills</span>, for example, or during polar night to <span style="color: #ffc000;">map
the movement of ice floes that could threaten an offshore oil rig or platform</span>.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="color: #0070c0; font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 18.0pt; line-height: 107%;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="color: #0070c0; font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 18.0pt; line-height: 107%;">6. Seasonal/Repetitive
Coverage<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Certain seasons are better for
specific surveys. For example, a <span style="color: #00b050;">geologic mapping
project </span>in an area covered by temperate forest would see <span style="color: #9dc3e6; mso-style-textfill-fill-alpha: 100.0%; mso-style-textfill-fill-color: #9DC3E6; mso-style-textfill-fill-colortransforms: "lumm=60000 lumo=40000"; mso-style-textfill-fill-themecolor: accent1; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themetint: 153;">more of
the ground in spring </span>before deciduous plant <span style="color: #9dc3e6; mso-style-textfill-fill-alpha: 100.0%; mso-style-textfill-fill-color: #9DC3E6; mso-style-textfill-fill-colortransforms: "lumm=60000 lumo=40000"; mso-style-textfill-fill-themecolor: accent1; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themetint: 153;">leaf-out or in
the fall</span>, after leaves have dropped.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="color: #00b050; font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%;">High sun elevation
angle (summer) </span></b><b><span style="font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%;">provides images <span style="color: red;">with the best
color saturation</span>, which can be <span style="color: #00b0f0;">useful when
mapping lithologies </span>in <span style="color: #00b0f0;">low contrast areas</span>.
On the other hand, <span style="color: #00b050;">low sun angle images </span>(flown
during the morning or in winter), especially with a light snow cover, <span style="color: #00b0f0;">enhance geologic features in low-relief terrain</span>.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%;">If repetitive coverage is needed to <span style="color: #00b050;">monitor natural </span>(e.g., flooding, ice floes) <span style="color: #00b050;">or man-made </span>(e.g., drilling, roads) <span style="color: #00b050;">changes</span>, it is often <span style="color: #ffc000;">most
cost effective to use satellites because of their regular repeat cycles.</span>
Repeated <span style="color: #00b0f0;">aircraft surveys provide more detail </span>but
are much more costly.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="color: #0070c0; font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 18.0pt; line-height: 107%;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="color: #0070c0; font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 18.0pt; line-height: 107%;">7. Relief<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="color: red; font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Low-relief terrain </span></b><b><span style="font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%;">may require <span style="color: #00b050;">low sun angle or grazing radar imagery</span> to <span style="color: #00b0f0;">enhance subtle topographic and structural features</span>.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%;">On the other hand, <span style="color: red;">high-relief terrain </span>poses the potential problem of
large shadowed areas that can obscure important areas or details. These areas
should be <span style="color: #00b0f0;">flown during mid-day or using radar with
a steep depression angle</span> to minimize shadows.</span></b><b><span style="color: #0070c0; font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 18.0pt; line-height: 107%;"> </span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="color: #0070c0; font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 18.0pt; line-height: 107%;">8. Vegetation Cover<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="color: red; font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Color infrared images</span></b><b><span style="font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%;"> are very <span style="color: #5b9bd5; mso-themecolor: accent1;">sensitive</span> to <span style="color: #5b9bd5; mso-themecolor: accent1;">changes in vegetation type or
vigor,</span> since the peak reflection for vegetation is in the near infrared
region.</span></b> <b><span style="color: #ffc000; font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Combinations of infrared and visible
wavelengths</span></b><b><span style="font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%;"> have been <span style="color: #00b050;">used to map
changes in vegetation related to underlying rock types and even hydrocarbon seepage</span>
(Abrams et al., 1984).<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="color: red; font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Lidar</span></b><b><span style="font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%;"> which will
also provide an image of the top of the vegetation canopy that looks like
topography. <span style="color: #5b9bd5; mso-themecolor: accent1;">There are some
image processing methods</span>, called “<span style="color: #00b050;">vegetation
suppression</span>” techniques, which appear to <span style="color: #ffc000;">remove
vegetation and reveal subtle changes in the underlying soil or bedrock.</span>
These algorithms tend to remove the reflectance attributed to vegetation and
enhance the remaining wavelengths.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="color: #0070c0; font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 18.0pt; line-height: 107%;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="color: #0070c0; font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 18.0pt; line-height: 107%;">9. Water-Covered Areas<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="color: red; font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Shorter wavelengths </span></b><b><span style="font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%;">(blue and
green light) <span style="color: #00b050;">penetrate water farther than longer
wavelengths. </span><span style="color: #00b0f0;">The euphotic or
light-penetrating zone is known to extend to 30 m in clear water</span>
(Purser, 1973).<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="color: red; font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Infrared light</span></b><b><span style="font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%;">, which has
longer wavelengths than visible light, is <span style="color: #00b050;">absorbed
by water</span> and <span style="color: #00b0f0;">does not provide information on
bottom features</span>.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="color: #c00000; font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%;">Landsat TM</span></b><b><span style="font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%;">, with its <span style="color: #5b9bd5; mso-themecolor: accent1;">blue band</span>, is <span style="color: #00b050;">excellent for mapping shallow water features such as
shoals, reefs, or geologic structures. </span>Likewise, true color and special
water penetration films such as <span style="color: red;">Kodak Aerocolor SO-224 </span>have
excellent <span style="color: #00b0f0;">water penetration capabilities </span>(Reeves
et al., 1975). <span style="color: red;">Side-scan sonar </span>is available for <span style="color: #00b050;">shallow and deep water mapping</span>, and <span style="color: #00b0f0;">produces images of the sea bottom reflectance </span>using
acoustic energy, much like radar uses microwave energy to produce an image.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #00b0f0; font-family: Philosopher; font-size: 16.0pt; line-height: 107%;">References<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: Philosopher;">Abrams, M.J., J.E.
Conel, H.R. Lang. 1984. The Joint NASA/Geosat Test Case Project Sections 11 and
12. Tulsa: AAPG Bookstore.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: Philosopher;">Dekker, F. 1993.
What is the right remote sensing tool for oil exploration? Earth Obs. Mag. 2:
28–35.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
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Kareem Aminhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01536432157108573279noreply@blogger.com0